AI: Summary
This meeting featured Mark Anderson presenting a comprehensive historical overview of spatial hypertext, moderated by Dene Grigar. Anderson traced the evolution from early hypertext systems at Xerox PARC in the 1980s through modern applications, emphasizing how spatial hypertext allows users to organize information through spatial relationships rather than predefined structures. The presentation covered key systems like NoteCards, Aquanet, VIKI, Storyspace, and Tinderbox, highlighting the concept of “incremental formalization” – the ability to build structure as understanding emerges. The discussion that followed explored applications to XR environments, the importance of avoiding premature formalization, and the potential for spatial hypertext to support creative thinking and information triage. Participants shared experiences with various tools and debated the balance between automation and manual control in spatial organization systems.
Mark Anderson, Frode Hegland, Dene Grigar, Tom Haymes, Fabien Bénétou, Peter Wasilko, Mark Bernstein, Peter Dimitrios, Jim Strahorn, Rob Swigart
AI: Speaker Summary
Mark Anderson delivered the main presentation on spatial hypertext history and concepts. He emphasized that hypertext predates the web, traced development from 1980s Xerox PARC through modern tools, and stressed the importance of incremental formalization and avoiding premature structure. He advocated for “less is more” visualization approaches where spatial relationships convey meaning without textual clutter, and positioned spatial hypertext as particularly valuable for information triage when the problem structure is unknown.
Frode Hegland served as host and was highly engaged throughout, expressing gratitude for Anderson’s historical context and making connections to their current XR work. He discussed the Author application’s mapping features, the importance of interaction as a dimension of knowledge, and his excitement about spatial hypertext’s potential in XR environments. He also shared a personal anecdote about making a wooden pen and reflected on the balance between physical and digital tools.
Dene Grigar moderated the presentation professionally and contributed insights about her early experience with Storyspace in the 1990s for translating Homer’s Odyssey. She introduced the concept of “knowledge cubes” as 3D spatial containers for hypertext, discussing how users could navigate through cube faces and nest cubes within cubes. She emphasized the importance of non-Euclidean thinking in VR spaces and the concept of “expansive reality” rather than just “extended reality.”
Tom Haymes actively participated with questions about the distinction between concept maps and spatial hypertext, sharing his experience creating spatial hypertext in Miro. He emphasized the importance of connections over links, discussed the potential for linking between different users’ knowledge maps, and contributed thoughts on cognitive patterns and the historical context of technological development compared to the printing press.
Fabien Bénétou brought a practical maker’s perspective, emphasizing the importance of experimentation and building things to learn. He discussed the tension between natural spatial organization (like moving post-its on a board) and the “magical” aspects of hypertext links that can transport users between spaces. He contributed thoughts on state saving in XR environments and the challenge of preserving both explicit and implicit spatial arrangements.
Peter Wasilko participated primarily through chat contributions, highlighting Tinderbox’s end-user programmability, map adornments, and technical features like runCommand. He provided valuable context about the tool’s evolution from community contributions and suggested approaches for state saving using prototype chains and view specifications.
Mark Bernstein made brief but significant contributions, clarifying that most capabilities available in the 1990s can still be achieved today, though perhaps with different ease of implementation. He provided context about concept mapping research and maintained that historical capabilities haven’t been entirely lost, just transformed.
AI: Topics Discussed
WebXR Limited direct discussion of WebXR specifically, though the broader XR context was central to many conversations. Participants discussed how spatial hypertext concepts could be applied in XR environments, with Frode mentioning their ongoing XR text project and upcoming demos. The focus was more on spatial computing concepts that would apply to XR rather than specific WebXR technologies.
Gestures Gestures were discussed primarily in the context of XR interaction, with Frode noting that while gestures are useful in XR, there’s still value in physical objects and tools. Fabien mentioned gesture-based systems for bringing content closer or manipulating spatial arrangements. The discussion touched on how spatial manipulation through gestures could support the incremental formalization process that Anderson described.
Other Topics Discussed The meeting covered extensive ground including the history of hypertext systems from the 1980s onward, the concept of incremental formalization, the difference between spatial hypertext and concept mapping, memory palaces as related to spatial organization, the importance of avoiding premature structure in information organization, various software tools (Tinderbox, Storyspace, Miro, Obsidian), the balance between automation and manual control in knowledge organization, state saving and temporal navigation in spatial systems, the integration of physical and digital tools, and the potential for AI to support rather than replace human spatial reasoning.
Interesting Anecdotes Mark Anderson shared that when he returned to academic study in 2013, he was shocked by how dogmatic academic disciplines had become. Frode described making a wooden pen as a turning project, using it as an example of the value of physical making and suggesting it could have a barcode for integration with digital systems. Fabien shared a memorable childhood experience of breaking all his Lego kits and pouring them into one pile, which he described as “untractable pleasure” and used to illustrate the value of unstructured exploration. The group also noted the sad passing of Bill Atkinson, recognizing his contributions to the field of hypertext and interactive systems.
AI: Concepts Introduced
Spatial Hypertext – Defined by Mark Anderson as a form of hypertext that emphasizes spatial relationships and incremental formalization, where “where you are is what you are” and structure emerges through spatial arrangement rather than predefined categories.
Incremental Formalization – Anderson described this as the ability to build structure as understanding develops, avoiding premature commitment to organizational schemes that might constrain thinking.
Tyranny of the Link – Anderson explained this as the problem in early hypertext systems where users had to choose from extensive predetermined link types, which interrupted their thinking process.
Information Triage – Anderson positioned this as the primary use case for spatial hypertext, referring to situations where the problem structure is unknown and needs to emerge through exploration.
Knowledge Cubes – Dene Grigar introduced this concept as 3D spatial containers in XR where information can be placed on different faces of cubes, with users navigating through the cube space and nesting cubes within cubes.
Productive Propinquity – Mark Anderson used this term to describe meaningful spatial relationships between information objects, contrasting it with mere serendipity.
Expansive Reality – Dene Grigar suggested this term as an active, verb-form alternative to “Extended Reality,” emphasizing the goal of expanding human capabilities rather than just extending them.
AI: People Mentioned
Ted Nelson (mentioned by Anderson for Xanadu and transclusion concepts), Randy Trigg (mentioned by Anderson for TextNet system), Cathy Marshall (mentioned by Anderson as key researcher in Aquanet development), Frank Shipman (mentioned by Anderson for VIKI and VKB development), Michael Joyce and Jay David Bolter (mentioned by Anderson for Storyspace development), Mark Bernstein (mentioned by Anderson for taking over Storyspace development at Eastgate), Bob Stein (mentioned by Anderson for Tapestry project), Richard Brath (mentioned by Anderson for “Visualizing with Text” work), Joel Chan (mentioned by Mark Bernstein for concept mapping research at University of Maryland), Deena Larsen (mentioned by Dene Grigar for hypertext literature work), Vannevar Bush (mentioned by Tom Haymes for breadcrumb concept), Bill Atkinson (mentioned by Frode Hegland honoring his recent passing), Vint Cerf (mentioned by Frode for binding concept), Jeff Jarvis (mentioned by Tom Haymes for internet/printing press comparisons), Douglas Hofstadter (mentioned by Tom Haymes regarding Fluid Concepts work), Andrew Thompson (mentioned by Dene regarding knowledge cubes collaboration), Tim Cook (mentioned by Frode regarding Apple keynote)
AI: Product or Company Names Mentioned
Xerox PARC (mentioned by Anderson as birthplace of early hypertext research), NoteCards (mentioned by Anderson as early hypertext system with link tyranny problem), Aquanet (mentioned by Anderson as graphical hypertext system from 1991), VIKI (mentioned by Anderson as 1994 European hypertext conference system), VKB/Visual Knowledge Builder (mentioned by Anderson as Texas A&M system from 1999-2001), Storyspace (mentioned by Anderson as literary hypertext tool from 1987), Eastgate Systems (mentioned by Anderson as current maintainer of Storyspace), Tinderbox (mentioned by Anderson as modern spatial hypertext tool), Xanadu (mentioned by Anderson for Ted Nelson’s system), Twine (mentioned by Anderson for interactive fiction), Tapestry (mentioned by Anderson as Internet Archive funded storytelling tool), Miro (mentioned by Tom Haymes for creating spatial hypertext), Obsidian (mentioned by Anderson for its graph view limitations), Neo4j (mentioned by Anderson regarding German university research), Google Docs (mentioned by Anderson for comparison to multi-user features), VirtualBox (mentioned by Anderson for running old software), Intel Mac (mentioned by Anderson for virtualization), Windows 95/NT/98 (mentioned by Anderson for historical context), Author (mentioned by Frode for mapping features), Inform 7 (mentioned by Peter Wasilko for interactive fiction mapping), Apple (mentioned by Frode regarding keynote), WWDC (mentioned by Frode regarding Apple’s developer conference), Sloan Foundation (mentioned in context as project funder), Internet Archive (mentioned by Anderson as Tapestry funder), University of Maryland (mentioned by Mark Bernstein for Joel Chan’s work), Texas A&M (mentioned by Anderson for Shipman’s later work), Huff University Germany (mentioned by Anderson for current spatial hypertext research)
AI: Other
The meeting demonstrated a rich intersection between historical hypertext research and current XR development, with participants showing deep appreciation for foundational concepts that remain relevant today. There was notable emphasis on the maker philosophy – several participants stressed the importance of building and experimenting rather than just theorizing. The discussion revealed an ongoing tension between automation and human agency in knowledge organization tools, with general agreement that humans should maintain control over spatial arrangement while computers provide supportive capabilities. The group showed strong collaborative spirit, with frequent cross-references to each other’s work and genuine excitement about upcoming project demonstrations. The timing with the Apple WWDC keynote added urgency to wrap up the discussion, reflecting the group’s attention to current technology developments alongside historical research.
Chat Log URLs
https://www.routledge.com/Visualizing-with-Text/Brath/p/book/9780367259266
https://press.jhu.edu/books/title/11231/visualizing-mathematics-3d-printing
Chat Log Summary
The chat log reveals active parallel discussion among participants, with significant contributions from those not speaking verbally. Peter Wasilko provided detailed technical insights about Tinderbox features throughout the presentation. Fabien shared relevant resources and emphasized the value of building and experimenting, expressing strong anti-kit sentiment for both Lego and software tools. Tom Haymes contributed philosophical observations about cognitive patterns, technology adoption cycles, and the relationship between tools and creativity. Mark Bernstein clarified historical points and provided additional context about 1990s capabilities. The chat also captured real-time reactions, resource sharing, and coordination details like the Apple keynote timing. Notable was the collaborative nature of information sharing, with participants providing URLs to relevant resources and building on each other’s ideas. The chat demonstrated the group’s broad knowledge base and interdisciplinary approach, spanning from historical hypertext research to current XR development to cognitive science and philosophy of tools.
Sources
Bernstein, Mark. 1991 Storyspace: Hypertext and the Process of Writing. In Hypertext/Hypermedia Handbook, Berk, Emily and Devlin, Joseph (Eds.). McGraw-Hill Inc.,US, New York, NY, USA, 529–533.
Bernstein, Mark 1998. Patterns of Hypertext. HYPERTEXT ‘98. Proceedings of the Ninth ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia : Links, Objects, Time and Space—Structure in Hypermedia Systems, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1145/276627.276630.
Bernstein, Mark 2002. Storyspace 1. HYPERTEXT ‘02. Proceedings of the Thirteenth ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 172–181. https://doi.org/10.1145/513338.513383.
Bernstein, Mark 2002. Tinderbox. http://www.eastgate.com/Tinderbox/
Bernstein, Mark 2003. Collage, Composites, Construction. HYPERTEXT ‘03. Proceedings of the Fourteenth ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 122–123. https://doi.org/10.1145/900051.900077 .
Bernstein, Mark 2009. Shadows in The Cave: Hypertext Transformations. Journal of Digital Information (JoDI). 10, 3, 1–8. https://jodi-ojs-tdl.tdl.org/jodi/article/view/714.
Bernstein, Mark 2011. Can We Talk About Spatial Hypertext? HT ‘11. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1145/1995966.1995983.
Note: author’s version (free access)) : https://www.eastgate.com/download/SpatialHypertext.pdf.
Bernstein, Mark 2016. Storyspace 3. HT ‘16. Proceedings of the 27th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1145/2914586.2914624.
Bernstein, Mark 2024. A New View. HT ‘24. Proceedings of the 35th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1145/3648188.3678214.
Bolter, Jay David and Joyce, Michael 1987. Hypertext and Creative Writing. HYPERTEXT ‘87. Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Hypertext, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1145/317426.317431.
Brath, Richard. 2020 Visualizing with Text. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Halasz, Frank G., Moran, Thomas P., and Trigg, Randall H. 1986. NoteCards in a Nutshell. CHI’87. Proceedings of the SIGCHI/GI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems and Graphics Interface, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1145/29933.30859.
Marshall, Catherine C., Halasz, Frank G., Rogers, Russell A., and Janssen, Jr, William C. 1991. Aquanet: A Hypertext Tool to Hold Your Knowledge in Place. HYPERTEXT ‘91. Proceedings of the Third Annual ACM Conference on Hypertext, 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1145/122974.123000.
Marshall, Catherine C. and Rogers, Russell A. 1992. Two Years before the Mist: Experiences with Aquanet. HYPERTEXT ‘92. Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Hypertext, 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1145/168466.168490.
Marshall, Catherine C. and Shipman, III, Frank M. 1993. Searching for the Missing Link: Discovering Implicit Structure in Spatial Hypertext. HYPERTEXT ‘93. Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on Hypertext, 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1145/168750.168826.
Nelson, Theodor Holm. 1974 Computer Lib/Dream Machines. Self-published, n/a.
Shipman, III, Frank M., Hsieh, Haowei, Maloor, Preetam, and Moore, J. Michael 2001. The Visual Knowledge Builder: A Second Generation Spatial Hypertext. HYPERTEXT ‘01. Proceedings of the 12th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1145/504216.504245.
Stein, Bob 2025. Tapestries. https://tapestries.media/dashboard/public.
PICTURES
#5a. Intertwingled image, Nelson Computer Lib / Dream Machines (1974), q.v. pDM45 (and on #16)
#5b. Xanaviewer3 demo (now dark). Shows Author’s own experiment for HT’17 presentation
#8. NoteCards v1.1. manual, via interlisp.org
#9. AQUANET paper HYPERTEXT’91, q.v., p.269
#10. ‘Two Years before The Mist’ ECHT’92 paper, q.v.
#11. HYPERTEXT’93 paper, q.v., p.222
#12a. VIKI paper ECHT’94, q.v., p.20
#12b. ‘Can We Talk About spatial Hypertext’ HT ’11, q.v., p.109
#13. VKB v.1 (running on Win98 VM). Author’s own work (2025)
#15. Image memes via imagflip.com
#19. ‘Can We Talk About Spatial Hypertext’ HT ’11, q.v., pp. 106, 107
#20a. https://web.archive.org/web/20041204032144/http://www.eastgate.com/Tinderbox/elements/WhatYouHuge.gif
#20b. `A New View’, HT’24, q.v., p.65
#26–28. Author’s own Tinderbox document (c.2017)
#29. ‘Can We Talk About Spatial Hypertext’ HT ’11, q.v., pp. 104,105, 107